What is Psychological Egoism?
It's the idea that all human actions or motives are inherently self-interested even when performing acts of altruism. This is also an empirical claim about human motives and not what they ought to be. Not all self-interested actions are good or moral but they definitely can be if all human actions are self-motivated.
For example, you see a homeless man on the street, you don't like seeing the homeless suffer, you give him food and water, and while you help the man you are ultimately doing this to make yourself feel better. Helping others in such ways is ultimately motivated by some form of self-interest, such as non-sensory satisfaction, the expectation, the desire to gain respect or reputation, or for religious satisfaction. The helpful action is merely instrumental to these ultimately selfish goals.
Another example is when someone is drowning or in a car accident. We want to help this person drowning because there comes into play unconscious fear regarding our own safety. The suffering of another person is felt as a threat to our own happiness and sense of safety, because it reveals our own vulnerability to misfortunes, and thus, by relieving it, one could also ameliorate those personal sentiments or if they are someone related to us and not helping them could damage our happiness.
"Further, humans are not motivated to strictly avoid pain and only pursue pleasure, but, instead, humans will endure pain to achieve the greatest net pleasure. Accordingly, all actions are tools for increasing pleasure or decreasing pain, even those defined as altruistic and those that do not cause an immediate change in satisfaction levels." An example of this is the long-term benefits of voluntary childbirth and raising a family.
This is also relatable to Adam Smith's Invisible Hand Argument that says self-interest in economic terms is not only good for yourself but ultimately good for the well-being of the community. Smith comes from an ethical egoism perspective where he never says that all human action is self-interested but we ought to be; at least in economic circumstances.
Some criticisms include that it's non-falsifiable, that it's an over examination of human motives and that people can be selfless and helpful just for the sake of being of selfless and helpful, and that if all people are self-interested then that takes away from someone's free will.
Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Psychological_egoism
http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/jcanders/Ethics/egoismhandout.htm
http://www.iep.utm.edu/psychego/
http://www2.sunysuffolk.edu/pecorip/SCCCWEB/ETEXTS/ETHICS/Chapter_5_Teleological_Theories_Egoism/Psychological_Egoism.htm
Wednesday, June 17, 2015
Wednesday, June 3, 2015
The Swiss Story During WWII
While down in North Carolina last week I purchased a Swiss K31 Rifle which are a popular military surplus rifle in the US at the moment. They're not just popular because they are affordable at around $300 a piece or because they are good survivalist guns but because, like everything else the Swiss made, they are extremely well built. In addition, they were very well taken care of, known for there accuracy and stability, had revolutionary straight pullback action technology (which increased the shooter's rate of fire relative to bolt action rifles of the time), and were physically good looking rifles. Historically, Swiss rifles have always been higher quality than there European counterparts, much like Swiss knifes, chocolate, watches, standard of living, and so on. Which brings me to another aspect of Swiss life they are known for. Their neutrality.
After purchasing any military surplus rifle, I like to research the history behind the weapon and what makes it unique. Like I said before, Swiss rifles are usually better in many aspects than their European counterparts but interestingly enough most of these rifles have never even seen combat but we assume they would perform well in the battlefield. So I began looking into the Swiss politics of warfare and international politics of the Great War and WWII era.
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| Straight Pull Back Action and 1500m Sights |
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| Made from beech wood |
After purchasing any military surplus rifle, I like to research the history behind the weapon and what makes it unique. Like I said before, Swiss rifles are usually better in many aspects than their European counterparts but interestingly enough most of these rifles have never even seen combat but we assume they would perform well in the battlefield. So I began looking into the Swiss politics of warfare and international politics of the Great War and WWII era.
The Great War: The Swiss situation from 1914 to 1918 wasn't that interesting nor was it completely a troubling time for the government. While most Swiss were German speaking, they weren't ready to get involved with either the central or entente powers since they had such a strong national identity. Also, both alliances relied on Swiss financial institutions which put the Swiss in a positive position following the conflict. However, when war did break out the Swiss did pursue armed neutrality and mobilized roughly 250,000 volunteers just in case trench warfare spilled over into Switzerland. By 1915, the government realized it would be unlikely for any power to make a move through Switzerland and their mobilized numbers dropped to 38,000 and then to 12,500 by 1918.
Despite never being directly involved, Switzerland did actually play an important part in the outcome of the war. It became a safe haven for many refugees, artists, intellectuals, socialists, and deserters. Vladimir Lenin actually lived in exile in Switzerland until 1917 when the Germans paid for him to be shipped to Russia as a public dissenter. Which of course played a major role in the Russian Revolution and the foundation of the Soviet Union. Other than that it was business as usual in Switzerland.
WWII and the National Redoubt: Now this is where it gets more interesting. Again, war breaks out in Europe and Switzerland goes into armed neutrality but with a pro-allied mood. The Swiss government starts building what is called the "National Redoubt" (started in 1880 but small scale) which was a series of fortifications along the east/west side of the Alps. The idea was to abandon the main heartland of Switzerland and only defend key railroad and communication centers which were spread out in the Alps, a natural defense line. The invading army would have to fight it's way through rough terrain, high altitudes in cold weather, and extremely fortified lines of defense. This way the government could hold onto to some territory if an invasion occurred. The retreating Swiss army would blow up key bridges, mountain passes, and railroad/communication centers. The end goal was to deter the enemy and cause the invading army so much damage and so many casualties that any such operation would not be beneficial or strategically practical (Hitler had a similar idea near the late end of the war called the "Alpine Fortress" in Southern Germany where core SS units would fight a guerrilla war but it never materialized). The redoubt was manned by 8 infantry divisions and 3 mountain brigades.
Operation Tannenbaum: After the fall of France in 1940, the situation became more drastic for the Swiss. Unlike the First World War where Switzerland was not surrounded by one alliance or another, suddenly found themselves surrounded by unfriendly forces. At this point, the National Redoubt plan was fully implemented and the bulk of the army abandoned the Swiss borders and within 3 days the entire military was mobilized. Prior to the war, Hitler promised Switzerland's neutrality in the event of war but later said it was the "pimple of Europe" and considered them broken away Germans that had no right to be independent. While, it was not in Germany's interest to invade Switzerland at this point of the war or in any other point of the war, they did draw up invasion plans in 1940 called Operation Tannanbaum. The plan called for 21 German divisions to occupy the heartland accompanied by 15 Italian Divisions. They would either ignore the Swiss Alps or hope to draw them out. Once Switzerland was occupied, they planned on bringing the population back into the German fold as being racially suitable Aryans. More detailed plans were drawn up on how it would be split between Germany and Italy and how annexation would work. The invasion was never carried out and no one is really sure but probably had to do with the fact that it was not immediately necessary at the time and it would have been costly for the invaders with estimates as high as 500,000 casualties. Also, any invasion would have prompted destruction of vital railways that Germany frequently used.
Remainder of the War: During the invasion of France, Germany violated Swiss airspace 197 times and as a result the Swiss shot down 17 Luftwaffe pilots. In response, Germany sent a team of saboteurs to destroy Swiss airfields but they were captured by the Swiss before any damage could be done. Later on in the war, the Swiss would intercept both allied and axis planes who violated their airspace. Over 940 allied pilots were interned in Swiss ski resorts throughout the war. Many allied pilots would've rather faced Swiss internment than get shot down in Axis territory. By 1944 the US State Department secured the release of most of the downed pilots even though most had escaped into liberated France. In addition, German and Swiss soldiers engaged in light border skirmishes throughout the war.
Economics: During the German occupation of Europe, most traded goods came from Germany and Italy (importation of 10,267,000 tons of coal or 41% of Swiss energy requirements from Germany). Since they were dependent on Axis trade, they entered in economic cooperation with Germany. They also exported dairy goods, watches, jewelry, and tools to Germany. This also included extending limited credit to the Third Reich and allowing Germany to freely use Swiss railroad infrastructure that linked Germany and Italy together. Between 1940 and 1945, Germany sold large amounts of gold to the Swiss National Bank in exchange for Swiss Francs (1.3 billion Francs worth of gold) which could be used by Germany to purchase raw materials from other neutral countries. Some of the gold sold to Switzerland during the war included war plunder from holocaust victims and former reserves from occupied countries. This of course became controversial for Switzerland after the war and several lawsuits have been brought up since then. Many claim that trade cooperation and credit extensions prolonged the war. However controversial, most trade was out of necessity if Switzerland wanted to maintain it's independence and in total Swiss/Germany trade only accounted for .05% of Germany's war effort. Switzerland did however face many economic shortages during the war due to not being able to freely trade.
Despite never being directly involved, Switzerland did actually play an important part in the outcome of the war. It became a safe haven for many refugees, artists, intellectuals, socialists, and deserters. Vladimir Lenin actually lived in exile in Switzerland until 1917 when the Germans paid for him to be shipped to Russia as a public dissenter. Which of course played a major role in the Russian Revolution and the foundation of the Soviet Union. Other than that it was business as usual in Switzerland.
WWII and the National Redoubt: Now this is where it gets more interesting. Again, war breaks out in Europe and Switzerland goes into armed neutrality but with a pro-allied mood. The Swiss government starts building what is called the "National Redoubt" (started in 1880 but small scale) which was a series of fortifications along the east/west side of the Alps. The idea was to abandon the main heartland of Switzerland and only defend key railroad and communication centers which were spread out in the Alps, a natural defense line. The invading army would have to fight it's way through rough terrain, high altitudes in cold weather, and extremely fortified lines of defense. This way the government could hold onto to some territory if an invasion occurred. The retreating Swiss army would blow up key bridges, mountain passes, and railroad/communication centers. The end goal was to deter the enemy and cause the invading army so much damage and so many casualties that any such operation would not be beneficial or strategically practical (Hitler had a similar idea near the late end of the war called the "Alpine Fortress" in Southern Germany where core SS units would fight a guerrilla war but it never materialized). The redoubt was manned by 8 infantry divisions and 3 mountain brigades.
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| The 3 lines of defense in the Swiss Alps as part of the National Redoubt |
Operation Tannenbaum: After the fall of France in 1940, the situation became more drastic for the Swiss. Unlike the First World War where Switzerland was not surrounded by one alliance or another, suddenly found themselves surrounded by unfriendly forces. At this point, the National Redoubt plan was fully implemented and the bulk of the army abandoned the Swiss borders and within 3 days the entire military was mobilized. Prior to the war, Hitler promised Switzerland's neutrality in the event of war but later said it was the "pimple of Europe" and considered them broken away Germans that had no right to be independent. While, it was not in Germany's interest to invade Switzerland at this point of the war or in any other point of the war, they did draw up invasion plans in 1940 called Operation Tannanbaum. The plan called for 21 German divisions to occupy the heartland accompanied by 15 Italian Divisions. They would either ignore the Swiss Alps or hope to draw them out. Once Switzerland was occupied, they planned on bringing the population back into the German fold as being racially suitable Aryans. More detailed plans were drawn up on how it would be split between Germany and Italy and how annexation would work. The invasion was never carried out and no one is really sure but probably had to do with the fact that it was not immediately necessary at the time and it would have been costly for the invaders with estimates as high as 500,000 casualties. Also, any invasion would have prompted destruction of vital railways that Germany frequently used.
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| Modern remnants of some of the fortifications |
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| Swiss Rifleman in WWII |
Remainder of the War: During the invasion of France, Germany violated Swiss airspace 197 times and as a result the Swiss shot down 17 Luftwaffe pilots. In response, Germany sent a team of saboteurs to destroy Swiss airfields but they were captured by the Swiss before any damage could be done. Later on in the war, the Swiss would intercept both allied and axis planes who violated their airspace. Over 940 allied pilots were interned in Swiss ski resorts throughout the war. Many allied pilots would've rather faced Swiss internment than get shot down in Axis territory. By 1944 the US State Department secured the release of most of the downed pilots even though most had escaped into liberated France. In addition, German and Swiss soldiers engaged in light border skirmishes throughout the war.
Economics: During the German occupation of Europe, most traded goods came from Germany and Italy (importation of 10,267,000 tons of coal or 41% of Swiss energy requirements from Germany). Since they were dependent on Axis trade, they entered in economic cooperation with Germany. They also exported dairy goods, watches, jewelry, and tools to Germany. This also included extending limited credit to the Third Reich and allowing Germany to freely use Swiss railroad infrastructure that linked Germany and Italy together. Between 1940 and 1945, Germany sold large amounts of gold to the Swiss National Bank in exchange for Swiss Francs (1.3 billion Francs worth of gold) which could be used by Germany to purchase raw materials from other neutral countries. Some of the gold sold to Switzerland during the war included war plunder from holocaust victims and former reserves from occupied countries. This of course became controversial for Switzerland after the war and several lawsuits have been brought up since then. Many claim that trade cooperation and credit extensions prolonged the war. However controversial, most trade was out of necessity if Switzerland wanted to maintain it's independence and in total Swiss/Germany trade only accounted for .05% of Germany's war effort. Switzerland did however face many economic shortages during the war due to not being able to freely trade.
Regardless of some Nazi sympathizers in the Swiss armed forces and refusal to allow allied bombers to use Swiss airspace, I think their quickness to mobilize forces and a well thought out contingency plan is really interesting. It would have been interesting to see what would have happened had Germany invaded Switzerland and how it would have effected other campaigns they fought in terms of reduced man power and resources. Even though Switzerland is not in danger of being invaded today, they still carry on many citizen/military traditions that set them apart from other European countries. For example, every citizen goes through mandatory military and firearms training and in some cantons able bodied citizens may keep a military issued rifle stored in their house if they wish. In the event of a national crisis, each member of the citizen militia would grab their household weapon and head meet up with their regiments. Every year, their is mandatory firearms training and range practice is often encouraged at the many government sponsored shooting ranges. The Swiss certainly have an interesting sense of nation identity and patriotic duty.
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| Swiss shooters at the traditional Ruetlischiessen Compeition |
Sources:
http://www.thetruthaboutguns.com/2013/05/daniel-zimmerman/gun-review-k31-schmidt-rubin-rifle/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Redoubt_(Switzerland)
http://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/25/world/swiss-reveal-secret-world-their-defense-from-nazis.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars
http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/switzerland-second-world-war-ii.html
http://world.time.com/2012/12/20/the-swiss-difference-a-gun-culture-that-works/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Redoubt_(Switzerland)
http://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/25/world/swiss-reveal-secret-world-their-defense-from-nazis.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars
http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/switzerland-second-world-war-ii.html
http://world.time.com/2012/12/20/the-swiss-difference-a-gun-culture-that-works/
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